Like-for-like acquisition-cost example
To make countries easy to compare, every calculation uses the same illustrative €1,000,000 resale purchase price. This is a neutral reference value, not a minimum, target or recommended investment amount. The example assumes an individual cash buyer purchases at arm’s length. It includes the normally applicable transfer or stamp tax and an indicative allowance for mandatory legal, notarial, registration and technical costs. It excludes mortgage costs, renovation, furnishing, buyer-specific relief, company structures and annual holding costs.
Practical entry level
This is an editorial estimate of the capital normally required to access an investable residential unit in a relevant rental market. It is not a statutory minimum, nationwide floor price or guarantee that a suitable property is available.
Rental yields
Yields are indicative gross ranges before vacancy, management, maintenance, service charges, tax and financing. They combine national and major-city evidence and must not be treated as a promised return.
Residence routes
Ownership and immigration rights are assessed separately. A qualifying investment may support an application, but never guarantees approval. Programme thresholds, eligible property types and usage restrictions must be checked at application date.
Source hierarchy
- National tax authorities and government portals
- Land registries, central banks and national statistics offices
- Eurostat, ECB and OECD datasets
- Municipal short-term rental and planning rules
- Established professional and market datasets where official statistics are unavailable
Reading the figures
Ranges intentionally reflect regional variation and transaction structure. A local lawyer and tax adviser should issue a transaction-specific completion statement before the buyer signs or transfers funds.